Environmentalism lines up pretty readily with both of those accounts of religion. And between 1517 and 1917, the Ottoman Empire-whose official religion was Islam-ruled the city. Similarly, Jayhānī’s description of Buddhism in his now lost gazetteer Kitāb al-masālik (The Book of Roads) provided material on Buddhist thought for both Maqdisī and Gardīzī in their brief descriptions of religion in India. These include the animal tales of the Kalīla wa-Dimna (Kalila and Dimna, ca. eighth century), based on the Pañcatantra (Five Treatises, ca. 300 c.e.), and the Kitāb Bilawhar wa-Yūdūsaf (The Book of Bilawhar and Yudasaf, ca. seventh-eighth century), a compilation from various sources of the Buddha biography that became the prototype for the Christian legend of Barlaam and Josaphat. More detailed descriptions of the dharma, as well as the standard categorization of Indian religions, are found in Ibn al-Nadīm’s Fihrist (Catalogue, 987) and Shahrastānī’s Kitāb al-milal wa-n niḥal (The Book of Religions and Faiths, 1125), works superseded only by Rashīd al-Dīn’s Ta’rīkh al-Hind (History of India, ca. 1305/6), which explores at length the Buddha and Buddhist concepts of time as presented by the Kashmiri monk Kamalaśri (dates unknown). However, Muhammad begged God to reduce the number to five times a day, which is the current standard for Muslim prayer.

According to the Quran, Jerusalem was also the last place the Prophet Muhammad visited before he ascended to the heavens and talked to God in the seventh century. Arab Muslims settled on the Indian coast in the last part of the 7th century CE. Within their mechanical shell, in their mind core, is a radiolarian fluid that looks like milk and is the last remnant of their biological nature. The work outlines Muslim dietary laws, circumcision, marriage, the nature of god, and god’s relationship to humanity. The main source is the KĀlacakra (Wheel of Time), a work composed in India during the early eleventh century at a time of increased Muslim migration, primarily Shi’ite groups fleeing persecution from the Sunni caliphate. And in opposition to Islam’s well-known iconoclasm, an extensive Muslim trade in Buddhist icons flourished through the tenth century. He worked with Elijah Muhammad to further expound the Nation of Islam’s message from Temple No. 7 in Harlem and Temple No. 11 in Boston where he was a minister. During the night journey, Muhammad was purified in preparation for his meeting with God. Both this miraculous night journey and his communion with God are important events in Islam.

All five words are multiplied by eternity and infinity. Why there are not more Buddhist interpretations of Islam is uncertain, though the retreat of Buddhism as a culturally dynamic force certainly played a role. In addition, Islamic tradition predicts that Jerusalem will play an important role in the future, naming it as one of the cities where the end of the world will play out. A syncretism fueled by Advaita Vedānta and tantric thought also played a role in South Asia’s Islamization, as Sufi saints appropriated indigenous Indian religious discourses in transmitting and developing Islam in South Asia. Islamic architecture derived inspiration from and appropriated localized Buddhist forms across Asia. First, there could be other forms of indirect evidence for the occurrence of a miracle that does not include testimony of someone’s direct experience of it. All the evidence goes to show that what we regard as our mental life is bound up with brain structure and organized bodily energy. Spiritual life at GBSC is important. This narrative refashioned the Hindu myth of Viṣṇu’s final avatar Kalkin Cakrin into a Buddhist apocalypse where Kalkin rides out of Shambhala, the mythical kingdom where the Buddha’s final teachings are preserved, and kills the Muslims who have taken over the world, ushering in an age of pure dharma.

The nexus of Buddhism’s imminent internal absorption into Hinduism and the external threat posed by Islam is most eloquently captured in the central eschatological myth of the Kālacakra. Islam was a threat, but Buddhism’s inevitable absorption into the amorphous doctrinal and ritual category of Hinduism was a greater one. Once in heaven, God told Muhammad that he should recite the salat, or ritual prayer, 50 times each day. Muhammad saw his mission as an extension of the Abrahamic traditions of Judaism and Christianity. Thus, for a time these traditions engaged one another, and holy sites came to share narratives of sacrality. The most famous of these narratives concerns the footprint on a mountain in Sri Lanka traditionally attributed to the Buddha. Indeed, over time the term bot (idol, presumably deriving from Buddha) lost its religious significance and became a clichéd metaphor of idealized beauty in Persian poetry. In 1,000 B.C.E., King David established Jewish control over Jerusalem. Trebuchets were powerful siege engines used in medieval warfare to hurl large projectiles over great distances. Tāranātha’s Rgya gar chos ‘byung (History of Buddhism in India, 1608), in accord with other Indian sources, notes that Buddhists rejoiced in the Muslim destruction of Hinduism and records that Buddhists even acted as agents and intermediaries for the Turkic assault on Magadha in central India.